The Stories of US Presidents Who Did And Didn’t Wear A Military Uniform
From the moment that The United States declared its independence from Britain, military leadership became a foundational part of the nation's leadership at large. After all, one can hardly hope to be president of a country that doesn't have the might to realize its self-determination in the first place.
For that reason, it's not unusual to hear of American presidents who had significant military experience. At the same time, there's as much value in leadership during peacetime as there is in being able to show cool-headed valor in times of war. So, while military experience has long proved an asset to presidents, it's never been a requirement.
DID: Theodore Roosevelt
By the time he succeeded William McKinley as president in 1901, Theodore Roosevelt had long established a reputation as a hearty soldier and a keen tactician. But while the National Park Service noted that he was once Assistant Secretary to the Navy and had three years of experience as a captain of the National Guard, this reputation was truly earned during the Spanish-American War.
After resigning from his Navy position, Roosevelt petitioned Secretary of War Russell A. Alger for the right to form his own volunteer regiment, which would eventually be called "Roosevelt's Rough Riders." Although they were commanded by Colonel Leonard Wood at first, two successful battles in 1898 led to his promotion, which gave Roosevelt official command of his regiment. After he distinguished himself at the Battle of San Juan Heights, Roosevelt returned to the United States from Cuba and was welcomed as a war hero and a beloved national celebrity.
DID: George Washington
According to the U.S. Army Center Of Military History, George Washington's military career had an ironic beginning. Before he led the Continental Army to victory against the British crown, he fought to protect its interests against French forts set up close to the Ohio River. Although these engagements typically didn't go well for Washington, they taught him the tactical and leadership skills that he would apply against his former commanders.
Following successful engagements in Lexington and Concord, he was appointed General and Commander-In-Chief of the Continental Army. For the eight years of fighting that followed, he refused to take a salary. Although he is one of only a few men in American history to become the equivalent of a Five-Star General, he was eager to become a private citizen again after the war was over and believed the military should be subordinate to civilian authority.
DID: John F. Kennedy
According to the Naval History And Military Command, John F. Kennedy's chronic back pain would have normally disqualified him for military service, but he was able to secure an exception through Captain Alan Kirk of the Office of Naval Intelligence and joined the U.S. Navy. Eventually, he was promoted to Lieutenant Junior Grade and was assigned to command the PT 101 patrol boat before he requested a transfer to a combat unit.
He then assumed command of PT 109, which was unintentionally rammed by a Japanese destroyer on August 1, 1943. Despite landing on his back at first, Kennedy personally swam out to rescue two injured men knocked overboard by the collision. In one case, he gave engineer Henry McMahon his life jacket and towed him to safety with the jacket's strap in his teeth. 11 members of the crew survived, and Kennedy was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for his bravery and a Purple Heart for his sustained injuries.
DID: Dwight D. Eisenhower
According to the National Museum of the United States Army, Dwight Eisenhower had a prodigious mind for military strategy while studying at West Point. And while he was eager to see action when World War I broke out and made a valuable friendship with fellow future general George S. Patton, the Armistice brought the conflict to a close before he could enter it. However, what he learned then and in the intervening years proved invaluable when he was among America's top military officers in World War II.
His planning saw early success in North Africa that compelled President Roosevelt to award him the Medal of Honor, but Eisenhower refused it, feeling undeserving because it wasn't earned in combat. The following year, he was promoted to Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces and contributed significantly to the planning of Operation Overlord, which is now known as the invasion of Normandy on D-Day. In addition to his military accolades, he earned deep respect among his men for treating them the same as officers.
DID: Thomas Jefferson
Although Thomas Jefferson obviously had a pivotal role in the American Revolution, there was no military capacity for this role, and he did not serve in the Continental Army. However, the National Guard explained that this did not mean he had no military experience to speak of. Before there was a Continental Army, the Governor of Virginia appointed Jefferson as a colonel in the Albemarle County Militia.
In his capacity, he saw to the militia's training, organization, and punishment (he had official responsibility for fines and court-martials). With the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, he ensured his militia was properly mobilized and ready to serve as replacements for Virginia's Continental Army regiments.
DIDN'T: Franklin D. Roosevelt
Although the National Park Service noted that Franklin D. Roosevelt was once Assistant Secretary to the Navy, this was technically a civilian position, and he never donned a Navy uniform. Although he was a novice in how the Navy worked, he learned fast in dealing with personnel, contracting, and operations. He also recognized the significance of America's involvement in World War I before then-President Woodrow Wilson did.
When the proliferation of German U-boats reached American waters, he was also instrumental in securing approval for a network of aquatic mines in the North Sea. The horrific sights he witnessed during a visit to France in 1918 convinced him to begin World War II with a similar isolationist policy to Wilson's, but his administrative experience with the Navy would come in handy once the U.S. entered the war in earnest.
DID: Richard M. Nixon
On June 15, 1942, Richard M. Nixon accepted an appointment to the U.S. Naval Reserve under the rank of Lieutenant Junior Grade. Although he initially served as Aide to the Executive Officer at Iowa's Naval Reserve Aviation Base, he sought a more direct role in the war and volunteered for sea duty.
This led Nixon to accept a role as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command at Guadalcanal. That's a mouthful, but the Naval History and Heritage Command explained that it meant he was in charge of a unit that prepared manifests and flight plans for C-47 planes and also supervised their loading and unloading. His work here proved effective enough that he was awarded a Letter of Commendation, the American Campaign Medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal.
DIDN'T: John Adams
Although John Adams' contributions to the American Revolution were significant both as a member of the Continental Congress and a diplomat, he never held a position in either the Continental Army or a state militia. As The White House outlined, he instead spent the war engaging in diplomatic efforts in France and what is now The Netherlands.
This led him to broker the peace treaty that ended the war and he became George Washington's Vice President soon after. Although he complained that his role was insignificant, he was elected president following his two terms and oversaw both diplomatic and military operations during a conflict with France that stopped short of blossoming into an all-out war.
DID: Jimmy Carter
According to the Naval History and Heritage Command, James Earl Carter graduated with distinction from the U.S. Naval Academy, which led to his assignment on the USS Wyoming as an ensign. After two years aboard this ship, he applied for submarine duty and eventually served three separate roles on the SSK-1 submarine, including engineering officer, electronics repair officer, and executive officer.
When Captain (later admiral) Hyman G. Rickover expressed his intention to create a nuclear submarine program, Carter asked to join and served with the Naval Reactors Branch between November 3, 1952, and March 1, 1953. Although he was training to be the engineering officer for one of the world's first nuclear submarines, the death of his father led him to resign his position and return home to Georgia to manage his family's business interests.
DID: James Madison
Although James Madison's political contributions to the Continental Congress and especially the Constitutional Convention were significant enough that he his considered no less than the Father of the Constitution, his role was mostly political. That's not to say he had no military role, but his actual duties were fairly limited.
According to the U.S. Army Center Of Military History, Madison was appointed commander of the militia covering Orange County, Virginia during the Revolutionary War. However, he wasn't able to see any active duty due to his poor health at the time. As such, the Center of Military History has little to say about him from this standpoint.
DID: Ronald Reagan
According to the National Park Service, Ronald Reagan had already achieved the rank of Second Lieutenant in a U.S. Army Reserves cavalry unit in Des Moines, Iowa, by the time he started his film career. Nonetheless, he stayed in the military while acting and was eager to serve with another cavalry unit when he was summoned for active duty in 1942.
However, his eyesight did not meet the standards for such a role, and he was instead classified for limited service. This led him to transfer to the Air Force, where his background as an actor (which included an Academy Award nomination for 1943's Rear Gunner) led to his assignment in the 1st Motion Picture Unit in Culver City, California. His work in relevant films and promotion of war drives led to his promotion to Captain and further promotion to Major.
DID: Abraham Lincoln
According to The Office Of The Illinois Secretary Of State, Abraham Lincoln's brief military service came after then-governor John Reynolds called for volunteers to repel a force of 2,000 Native Americans led by Sauk Chief Black Hawk in 1832. Lincoln was among close to 9,000 of these volunteers and was granted command of a militia company by his peers when he enlisted at Pleasant Plains.
He was elected a captain with 68 men under his command and later said that this election pleased him more than any of his life's many successes. While serving as this captain for 30 days, Lincoln also enlisted as a private in a separate company, where he served for 20 days. Despite his clear commitment to his service, neither he nor his men saw any combat.
DID: Harry S. Truman
As the Truman Library Institute made clear, nobody was going to stop Harry Truman from serving in the U.S. Army, including the Army itself. He applied for West Point and passed the written exam but failed the required eye exam. However, his solution was to memorize the eye chart and join the National Guard in 1905. While this service, his status as a farmer, his eyesight, and his age would have precluded him from the draft in 1917, he re-enlisted in the National Guard anyway.
Eventually, he assumed command of the notoriously rowdy Battery D of the 129th Field Artillery, 35th Division, and managed to establish order and discipline within them before they were shipped off to France. Once they arrived, Truman appeared undaunted by combat despite being privately terrified and was both brave on the field and in protecting his troops from orders that endangered them. Although he risked court martial for disobeying orders, his actions ensured he didn't lose a single man to combat and that he earned their undying respect and devotion.
DID: Ulysses S. Grant
According to the National Park Service, Ulysses S. Grant's military career began fairly inauspiciously, as his enrolment at West Point occurred due to family connections, and he graduated in the bottom half of his class. However, he proved himself as an effective leader in the field and while he was disgusted by the Mexican-American War, he participated in all but one of its major battles and was promoted to Captain.
His reticence to fight was just as present throughout the Civil War, but his leadership in training volunteers got him promoted to Brigadier General, and his victories throughout the war's western theater (particularly at Shiloh and Vicksburg) led to his promotion to command the entire Union Army in 1864. He waged an unorthodox war of rapid, targeted strikes and offensives that unified the army at large, which were key elements to the Union Army's victory against Robert E. Lee's Confederate forces.
DIDN'T: Woodrow Wilson
According to the Smithsonian's National Portrait Gallery, Woodrow Wilson neither earned nor wanted a shred of military experience. His religious and academic background was such that he not only had no interest in war, but even in international affairs. He was primarily focused on domestic policies, and before his inauguration, he said, "It would be the irony of fate if my administration had to deal chiefly with foreign affairs."
Of course, the outbreak of World War I two years into his first term ensured that irony would be realized. He was adamant about keeping the United States out of the war, instead wishing to serve as a mediator and peacemaker between the warring nations of Europe. He wasn't taken seriously internationally but just barely won re-election, thanks to the idea that he kept America out of the conflict. However, he found that the United States would have to enter the war anyway due to German U-boat attacks in American waters.
DID: Gerald Ford
After Pearl Harbor was attacked during World War II, a young Gerald Ford was inspired to join the Navy. According to the National Archives, he served on the USS Monterey, where he filled various roles throughout his military career, including assistant navigator, Athletic Officer, and an officer in charge of an anti-aircraft battery.
By the time he was discharged from active duty in 1946, Ford received the American Campaign Medal, and The American Victory Medal. Some of his honors came with further decorations, as his Asiatic-American Campaign Medal had a silver star and four bronze stars, while his Philippine Liberation Ribbon had two bronze stars. He retired from the Naval Reserve in 1963.
DID: Lyndon B. Johnson
At the time of the Pearl Harbor attack, Lyndon Johnson was a congressman and a member of the U.S. Naval Reserve. However, the LBJ Presidential Library explained that the national tragedy compelled him to request an indefinite leave of absence so he could apply for active duty. This made him one of America's first members of Congress to do so.
Arising to the rank of Lieutenant Commander, Johnson was often tasked with identifying and reporting on logistical problems that both hampered the production of ships and planes and blunted the effectiveness of troops in the Pacific Theater. Before President Roosevelt recalled all congressmen on active duty to Washington D.C. in 1942, Johnson received the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, the World War II Victory Medal, and a Silver Star. He was promoted to commander in the Naval Reserve in 1949 and held the position until his resignation in 1964.
DID: James Monroe
When the Revolutionary War broke out in 1776, an 18-year-old James Monroe cut his studies at Virginia's College of William and Mary short and joined the Continental Army. According to the History Channel, he not only saw action in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania but was there for one of the hardest periods of the Revolution.
After sustaining a wound in the Battle of Trenton in 1776, Monroe was among the troops accompanying George Washington during the infamously difficult winter they spent at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, between 1777 and 1778. He also became close with Thomas Jefferson during this time and saw the third president as a political mentor after the war was over.
DID: James K. Polk
James K. Polk is a fascinating president among historians as a dark horse candidate who was elected president and accomplished everything he set out to do in his first and only term. And while the National Guard agreed that Polk's accomplishments were more political than military in nature, he nonetheless served.
Although he wasn't a part of an official federal army, he was appointed as a captain of the militia encompassing Maury County, Tennessee in 1821. Although Polk's military service was somewhat modest, he nonetheless performed well enough to be promoted to Major.
DID: George H.W. Bush
According to Time, George Herbert Walker Bush has the distinction of being the last American President to date to have served in combat. Like some of his contemporaries, he joined the Navy in response to the Pearl Harbor attack at the age of 18. As he would later say, "I was scared, but I was willing. I was young, but I was ready. I had barely started living when I began to see men die."
He saw most of his action as a bomber pilot who flew 58 missions and survived being shot down twice. One particularly harrowing mission over the Pacific atoll of Chichi Jima saw his torpedo bomber shot down and nearly claimed his life before he scrambled onto a life raft and was rescued by a U.S. submarine. As his two brothers-in-arms did not share his fortunate fate, Bush was haunted by survivor's guilt for decades.
DID: Andrew Jackson
According to the Smithsonian Institute, Andrew Jackson first had a scarring brush with the British Army during his capture while serving as a patriot courier at the age of 15 during the American Revolution. The family tragedies he suffered during this time imbued him with a ferocity that would make him a feared military leader during the War of 1812, where he led troops after serving as a major general of the Tennessee militia for ten years.
After leading troops to a decisive enough victory in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend of 1814 to see the United States gain 20 million acres of territory in Georgia and Alabama, Jackson was promoted to Major General in the U.S. Army. He would score yet another impressive victory in the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 despite his forces being outnumbered two-to-one by the British.
DIDN'T: Calvin Coolidge
According to the Calvin Coolidge Presidential Foundation, Coolidge's father was appointed a colonel of Vermont Governor William Stickney's military staff, but Coolidge himself had never served in the military before his presidency. Nonetheless, he understood the importance of military affairs and proposed an armory for the city of Northampton while serving on its council in 1899.
He would later approve funding for a celebration honoring soldiers returning from World War I while serving as governor of Massachusetts, but largely stayed out of international conflicts during his presidency. His administration maintained a limited military force that could serve the nation's peacetime needs, which suited the popular anti-war sentiments within the United States at the time.
DID: George W. Bush
According to PBS, George W. Bush spent some of his time at Yale concerned that he would be drafted and sent off to fight in the Vietnam War. And as he came of age, that possibility became more and more likely.
So as writer Bill Minutaglio described it, this led him to find a middle ground between these fears and his father's military legacy by joining the 147th Texas Air National Guard. Although he reportedly proved a capable fighter pilot, he never saw any combat. He was honorably discharged in 1970.
DID: William McKinley
Following the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, William McKinley left his job as a schoolteacher to enlist in the Union Army's 23d Ohio Volunteer Infantry Regiment. After fighting in Carnifex Ferry and Fayetteville, McKinley showed true bravery during the infamous Battle of Antietam, where the National Museum of the U.S. Army credited him for bringing supplies and rations to front-line soldiers while risking enemy fire.
His actions saw McKinley promoted to second lieutenant and he fought further battles in Virginia, notably the Battles of Lexington, Lynchburg, Winchester, and Cedar Creek. The last of those saw him lead a counter-attack against Confederate forces despite injuries sustained from being pinned under his fallen horse. He attained the rank of brevet-major by the end of the war and was often addressed by that rank for the rest of his life.
DID: William Henry Harrison
According to the National Guard, William Henry Harrison was inspired to join the U.S. Army by tales of atrocities on America's western frontier and served in the nation's northwesternmost territories from 1791 to 1798. However, his most significant and infamous military campaigns came after he was elected governor of Indiana.
At the settlement of Tippecanoe, he led 1,000 men against Native American forces led by the legendary Canadian figure Tecumseh. He also held commanding positions in the Kentucky militia and the Army of the North-West during the War of 1812 and was known for recapturing Detroit and winning a decisive battle near Thomasville, Ontario, with a force of 4,000 volunteers. He was awarded a Congressional gold medal for his leadership.
DIDN'T: Herbert Hoover
Although Herbert Hoover never served in the military, the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library nonetheless noted his important humanitarian achievements during World War I. He used his wealth as a mining engineer to help Americans stranded in Europe during the war and later established the Commission For Relief in Belgium to ensure that civilians who were stuck in the war zone remained fed.
This led then-President Wilson to appoint Hoover as the U.S. Food Administrator in 1917, which meant putting him in charge of rationing food supplies for both American citizens and the armies that the United States would eventually fight alongside in the Great War.
DID: John Tyler
Although John Tyler was primarily a lawyer before he entered politics, the National Park Service noted that he also saw some military service during the War of 1812. Unlike his future running mate William Henry Harrison, however, his role in the war was decidedly minor.
He became the captain of a militia that was primarily based around the area between Williamsburg and Richmond, Virginia. However, his unit never saw any combat and he had moved on to the U.S. House of Representatives by 1816.
DID: Zachary Taylor
According to PBS, Zachary Taylor was a highly experienced military commander who quickly showed his capabilities as a soldier after joining the U.S. Army in 1806. He was promoted to first lieutenant just two years into his service and was known for commanding troops in the War of 1812, the Black Hack War of 1832, and the Second Seminole War of 1835. His leadership in the Seminole War led to his promotion to Brigadier General.
Although President Polk was initially disappointed by Taylor's conditional victory at the Battle of Monterrey during the Mexican-American War, he disobeyed orders and scored an impressive victory against a force of 14,000 men led by General Antonio López de Santa Anna. Although he only had 5,000 men under his command at the time, Taylor's strategic use of artillery forced the larger enemy force to retreat.
DID: James Buchanan
According to the National Guard, James Buchanan was opposed to the War of 1812 in Congress but enlisted in a Pennsylvania-based militia after the British captured Washington. The militia was known as Judge Shippen's Cavalrymen, and they were based in Lancaster, where Buchanan signed on on August 25, 1814.
Their mission was to defend Baltimore from advancing British forces, and Buchanan was one of ten men selected for a secret mission to round up additional horses for the unit. Once Baltimore was successfully defended, he and the rest of the unit were dismissed.
DID: Franklin Pierce
According to the National Guard, Franklin Pierce was named speaker of the New Hampshire state legislature in 1831, the same year he was appointed a colonel in the state's militia. But while he largely focused on state politics and his law practice for a time, that changed with the outbreak of the Mexican-American War.
In that conflict, he was a brigade commander under General Winfield Scott's army. He led his troops in their travels from New England to the Mexican city of Veracruz, whereupon he joined Scott's forces near Mexico City. He earned a reputation for bravery in battle throughout the war and was able to make it through his various battles unscathed, taking a bullet only in the brim of his hat.
DIDN'T: Grover Cleveland
According to the Miller Center, much of Grover Cleveland's life prior to politics saw him practice law. And by the time the Civil War broke out, he was serving as the district attorney for Erie County, New York. However, he did not give up his position to take up arms against the Confederacy.
Indeed, he was able to avoid military service entirely by paying a substitute $300 to go in his stead. For reference, this would be the equivalent of about $10,400 today. Although his political opponents would later brand him a "slacker" for avoiding the draft, this criticism didn't keep him from the White House, and he served two non-consecutive terms.
DID: Andrew Johnson
According to Andrew Johnson: A Biography by Hans L. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson enlisted in the 90th Regiment of the Tennessee Militia. Although he was fined for an unspecified offense during his time there, he worked effectively enough to attain the rank of colonel.
According to the National Park Service, he also served as the military governor of Tennessee in 1863. This was not exactly a position of military rank, but indicated that Tennessee was a captured territory that he was put in charge of until the Civil War's end drew near.
DID: Millard Fillmore
Prior to his presidency, Millard Fillmore hadn't engaged in any military service to speak of. But while it was in a semi-official capacity, that changed with the outbreak of the Civil War. Although he didn't join the Union Army, he found a different way to contribute to the preservation of the Union.
According to the New York State Military Museum, he put together a militia unit in Buffalo, New York. Aside from some ceremonial duties, this militia primarily guarded the state and handled the detention of prisoners of war.
DID: Rutherford B. Hayes
According to the Miller Center, Rutherford B. Hayes was approaching 40 years old and had no military experience by the time the Civil War broke out. Nonetheless, he was among the first to volunteer for service for a three-year term, saying that acting to preserve the Union was worth the potential cost of his life. He was appointed a major in the 23rd Ohio Volunteers and learned quickly when commanding his men.
Hayes was credited for turning the Battle of Opequon Creek and was promoted to Brigadier General for his valiant service that saw him bravely lead his men into battle despite being wounded five times throughout the war. He was nominated for Congress while fighting in Shenandoah Valley but refused the position out of a sense of duty to his troops. This only made him more popular as a candidate, and he was able to take his seat in the House of Representatives after the war ended.
DID: James A. Garfield
According to the National Park Service, James Garfield was hoping that his position as an Ohio state senator would grant him command of a regiment when the Civil War broke out. However, he was passed over as colonel of the 7th Ohio Volunteers and was instead offered a position as Lieutenant Colonel of the 47th Ohio Volunteers. While reading up on military training and strategy techniques, Garfield was promoted to colonel before he even reached the field due to his recruitment efforts.
And it seems Garfield's studies served him well, as General Don Carlos Buell granted him three additional regiments once he saw his plan of attack. He was able to trick Confederate General Humphrey Marshall into retreating with a vise grip formation and drove his forces out of Kentucky entirely with further attacks. This earned Garfield a promotion to Brigadier General, but dysentery forced him to take leave from the army in August 1862.
DID: Chester A. Arthur
According to the National Guard, Chester A. Arthur oversaw the birth of the U.S. Navy, as it is now understood, while he was president. However, that was hardly the start of his military contributions, as he was active in the New York Militia during the Civil War.
Not only was he there when it was renamed National Guard New York in 1862 but he took on key logistical roles as its chief engineer and later its quartermaster general. This role may not have put him in combat but its logistical importance can't be overstated. As quartermaster general, Arthur was responsible for training and equipping about 120,00 Union soldiers.
DID: Benjamin Harrison
According to the Miller Center, Benjamin Harrison joined the 70th Indiana Infantry Regiment in 1862 under the rank of second lieutenant. He served under Major General William T. Sherman and was on the front lines of the general's infamous Atlanta campaign, being among the first to march into the city after its surrender.
Harrison was praised by Sherman for his fighting spirit, ironclad discipline, and knack for foresight. Indeed, this praise befitted his quick rise through the ranks, as he was promoted to Brigadier General by the time of his retirement in 1865. However, Harrison was haunted by the war and believed that no decent person could take pleasure in combat, no matter how necessary a conflict may be.
DIDN'T: William Howard Taft
According to the Miller Center, William Taft's father was President Grant's Secretary Of War. However, this lineage apparently did not inspire Taft to pursue a military career, as he instead devoted his efforts to practicing law. Eventually, this turned him towards politics, and President McKinley selected him to set up a civilian government in the Philippines after the Spanish-American War.
While there, he often clashed with the new U.S. territory's military governor, General Arthur MacArthur (father of famed General Douglas MacArthur). As Taft saw it, MacArthur's administration of the islands was unacceptably brutal to Filipinos, and he had him removed from his position before drafting a U.S.-style constitution for the region.
DIDN'T: John Quincy Adams
Much like his presidential father, John Quincy Adams was better suited to matters of law and diplomacy than war. According to PBS, Adams was assigned as America's minister to the Netherlands when George Washington was president and then re-assigned to Prussia once his father succeeded him.
He later crossed the floor from the Federalist Party after being the only one among its ranks to support the Louisiana Purchase and became America's first minister to Russia during James Madison's presidency. And rather than fight in the War of 1812, he was one of the diplomats who ended up negotiating its end.
DIDN'T: Warren G. Harding
According to the Miller Center, Warren G. Harding had no military experience by the time he went into politics. Although most presidents before him either had a military or legal background, he had made his name from co-owning and overseeing Ohio's Marion Star newspaper.
Although much of the business sense it took to run the successful paper could be attributed to his wife Florence, Harding earned the favor of Ohio politicians with his even-handed editorial style and never had to fire a single employee. However, he wasn't known to be a particularly effective senator once he made the jump to federal politics, as he missed more sessions than he attended. Nonetheless, he remained well-liked until his presidency.